The term motivation in a second language learning context is seen according to Gardner (1985) as ‘referring to the extent to which the individual works or strives to learn the language because of a desire to do so and the satisfaction experienced in this activity (p.10).’
Motivation is typically defined as the forces that account for the arousal, selection, direction, and continuation of behaviour.
Many factors determine whether the students in your classes will be motivated or not motivated to learn. You should not be surprised to discover that no single theoretical interpretation of motivation explains all aspects of student interest or lack of it. Different theoretical interpretations do, however, shed light on why some students in a given learning situation are more likely to want to learn than others. Furthermore, each theoretical interpretation can serve as the basis for the development of techniques for motivating students in the classroom. Several theoretical interpretations of motivation will now be summarized.
Following Skinner's lead, many behavioural learning theorists devised techniques of behaviour modification on the assumption that students are motivated to complete a task by being promised a reward of some kind. Many times the reward takes the form of praise or a grade. Sometimes it is a token that can be traded in for some desired object; and at other times the reward may be the privilege of engaging in a self-selected activity.
BEHAVIOURAL VIEWS OF MOTIVATION
In a behavioural view, performance in tasks and motivation to do so is likely to be at the mercy of external forces: parents, teachers, peers, educational requirements and so forth.
COGNITIVE VIEWS OF MOTIVATION
In cognitive terms, motivation places much more emphasis on the individual’s decisions, “the choices people make as to what experiences or goals thy will approach or avoid, and the degree of effort they will exert in that respect” (Keller, 1983, p.389)
Cognitive views stress that human behaviour is influenced by the way people think about themselves and their environment. The direction that behaviour takes can be explained by four influences: the inherent need to construct an organized and logically consistent knowledge base, one's expectations for successfully completing a task, the factors that one believes account for success and failure, and one's beliefs about the nature of cognitive ability.
This view of motivation places even further emphasis on social context as well as individual personal choices (Williams & Burden, 1997, p.120). Each person is motivated differently, and will act on his/her environment in ways that are unique. But these unique acts are always carried out within a cultural and social milieu and cannot be completely separated from that context. Motivation, in a constructivist view, is derived as much from our interactions with others as it is from one’s self-determination.
Maslow's Theory of Growth Motivation
When Maslow observed the behaviour of especially well-adjusted persons--or self-actualizers, as he called them--he concluded that healthy individuals are motivated to seek fulfilling experiences.
Referring to need gratification as the most important single principle underlying all development, he adds that "the single, holistic principle that binds together the multiplicity of human motives is the tendency for a new and higher need to emerge as the lower need fulfills itself by being sufficiently gratified" (1968, p. 55). He elaborates on this basic principle by proposing a five-level hierarchy of needs. Physiological needs are at the bottom of the hierarchy, followed in ascending order by safety, belongingness and love, esteem, and self-actualization needs. This order reflects differences in the relative strength of each need. The lower a need is in the hierarchy, the greater is its strength because when a lower-level need is activated (as in the case of extreme hunger or fear for one's physical safety), people will stop trying to satisfy a higher-level need (such as esteem or self-actualization) and focus on satisfying the currently active lower-level need (Maslow, 1987).
MARLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
Three views of motivation
Behaviouristic | Cognitive | Constructivist |
Anticipation of reward | Driven by basic human needs (exploration, manipulation) | Social context |
Desire to receive positive reinforcement | Degree of effort expended | Community |
External, individual forces in control | Internal, individual forces in control | Social status |
Security of group | ||
Internal, interactive forces in control |
INSTRUMENTAL AND INTEGRATIVE ORIENTATIONS
Gardner and Lambert (1959, 1972) have done pioneering work to explore the nature of motivation specific to language study. Gardner highlights two different types of motivation:
1)
2) IntegrativeOrientations: the desire to learn a language in order to communicate with people from another culture that speak that language; the desire is also there to identify closely with the target language group.
INSTRUMENTAL ORIENTATION VS INTEGRATIVE ORIENTATION
A distinction has been made in the literature between ‘integrative” and ‘instrumental’ orientations: the desire to identify with and integrate into the target-language culture, contrasted with the wish to learn the language for the purpose of study or career promotion. Gardner and Lambert (1959, 1972) showed that success in a foreign/second language is likely to be lower if the underlying motivational orientation is instrumental rather than integrative. But research since then has cast doubt on the application of this claim to foreign language learners in general. In any case, at least one other study (Burstall et al., 1974) has indicated that it may be impossible in practice to distinguish between the two. (Penny Ur (2005) A course in Language Teaching: Practice and Theory, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.p.276).
Another distinction, perhaps more useful for teachers, is that between ‘intrinsic’ orientation (the urge to engage in the learning activity for its own sake) and ‘extrinsic’ (motivation that is derived from external incentives). INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION
1) Intrinsic Motivation
Edward Deci (1975, p.23) defined it: “Intrinsically motivated activities are ones for which there is no apparent reward except the activity itself. People seem to engage in the activities for their own sake and not because they lead to an extrinsic reward...Intrinsically motivated behaviours are aimed at bringing about certain internally rewarding consequences, namely, feelings of competence and self-determination.”
Intrinsic motivation occurs when the learning activity and the learning environment elicit motivation in the student. We do not motivate students but rather create, through our teaching, opportunities that can evoke motivation in students.
The following help to create intrinsic motivation:
- When the goals and rewards of the learning are meaningful to the learner
- When the learning is important to the student
- When the learning assists the learner in obtaining valued accomplishments
- When the learning assists the learners in integrating themselves with the world, with others, and promotes self-awareness.
2) Extrinsic Motivation
Extrinsic motivation is fuelled by the anticipation of a reward from outside and beyond the self. “In the classroom, it is a way of doing things to children rather than working with them” KOHN, 1993 (p.784). This view of management disregards a child's ability to think and reason on their own, not allowing them the chance to develop self-determination or independent thinking.
Punishments or rewards are used to control the motivation of the students. In situations where one person (the teacher) is clearly in power, extrinsic motivation has a greater opportunity to be effective.
Typical extrinsic rewards are money, prizes, grades and even positive feedback.
Intrinsic | Extrinsic | |
Integrative | L2 learner wishes to integrate with the L2 culture (e.g., for immigration or marriage) | Someone else wishes the L2 learner to know the L2 for integrative reasons. (e.g., Japanese parents send kids to language school) |
Instrumental | L2 learner wishes to achieve goals utilizing L2 (e.g., for a career) | External power wants L2 learner to learn L2 (e.g., corporation sends Japanese businessman to U.S. for language training) |
